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Glossary A-F a cappella: literally, "to the chapel," a cappella means performed without instrumental accompaniment. accompanied recitative: a recitative in which the orchestra (or selected members of the instrumental ensemble) play an active role, rather than simply sustaining chords to provide a harmonic foundation for the singer. Accompanied recitatives are fairly common in the Viennese Classical Era (Mozart), but a few examples do appear in Bach's cantatas. allemande: a dance in moderate tempo, always in duple meter. Bach frequently uses the allemande in his keyboard suites; in this situation, they are usually composed in 4/4 time and make heavy use of running figures. antecedent-consequent: a common arrangement of phrases or pairs of phrases (called a “period”) in music of the Classical and early Romantic eras. The first phrase typically ends with a half cadence, leaving the phrase feeling incomplete. The second phrase typically winds back to the tonic key, giving the pair of phrases a sense of resolution. antiphonal: refers to singing in alternating choruses: chorus 1, chorus 2, chorus 1, chorus 2, etc.
aria: usually, a solo vocal work, often elaborate and with instrumental accompaniment. An important component of opera, oratorio, and cantata. Another type of aria in the Baroque was a choral or vocal work, strophic in nature, homophonic in texture, composed on a metrical text (regular accent pattern, same number of syllables per line). The "aria'' from "Komm, Jesu, komm'' is one such aria, scored for chorus. arioso [are-ee-OH-so]: a texture which is partly lyrical and expressive and partly recitative or speech-like autograph: a hand-written score or part written by the composer himself basso continuo: perhaps the most important characteristic of Baroque music. Often shortened to continuo, the basso continuo was composed of a bass-register instrument that could play melodic lines (such as the bassoon or cello), and an instrument capable of playing chords (the organ in church music, the harpsichord or sometimes the lute in secular music). Both the melodic bass (pronounced like "base") instrument and the keyboard instrument would read the same part. The cello or bassoon would play a single bass line, but the keyboard player would play the bass line in the left hand and improvise chords in the right. A system of numbers would indicate to the keyboard player what chords were expected. beat: a regular metrical subdivision of a measure. Berlin Singakademie: founded in 1791 by Carl Fasch, this musical organization was dedicated to the preservation and performance of 18th-century sacred choral music, especially that of Bach; the orchestra regularly rehearsed instrumental music of that period as well. Felix and Fanny Mendelssohn were introduced by Bach's works by attending rehearsals of the Singakademie orchestra and later by singing with in the choir. binary form: a two-part form, in which the first half moves from the tonic key to the dominant (in a major key) or to the relative minor (in the minor mode); and the second half returns at some point to the tonic to close the work. Both halves are repeated, and marked with repeat signs. The two halves need not be balanced, and generally the second "half" is longer because of the wandering back to the tonic. Binary forms, especially "simple binary forms," were common in Bach's suites. bourée: a French court dance common in instrumental works of the Baroque era. The tempo is typically upbeat, and they are always in duple meter. Phrases, which are normally of equal length, typically begin with a quarter note upbeat, or an upbeat of two eighth notes. BWV: an abbreviation for Bach Werke Verzeichniss, which is a catalogue of Bach's works. The catalogue is organized by genre, not in the order the pieces were composed. cadence: a point of repose or rest in a work of music, occurring at the end of a piece, a movement, a section, or the end of a phrase. There are several types of cadences: perfect authentic (the strongest affirmation of a key), imperfect authentic, deceptive, plagal (sometimes called "Amen" cadence), and half cadence. cadenza: literally, cadence; in common usage, however, the term means an improvised or written-out solo passage, usually highly ornamental. Almost always occurs during an interrupted cadence; that is, on the second or third chord prior to a cadence. canon: the strictest form of imitation; an extended melody is imitated strictly in one or more other parts. The best known and simplest example is “Row, Row, Row Your Boat.” Usually the imitation occurs at a relatively close distance(such as a measure apart, as in the Brahms motet discussed above, between the tenors and bass II (also sopranos and alto II); though in the Brahms motet discussed above, there is also a canon between the men's and women's parts, nine measures apart. The imitation must include the same intervals (major thirds must remain, for example, and not be changed to minor thirds, as is common in a fugue), but the actual pitches may vary. That is to say, the original melody might begin on B, but the imitation begins on C; moving from one pitch to the next, however, all original intervals are precisely maintained. cantata [kahn-TAH-tah]: comes from the Italian word "cantare," meaning "to sing." This indicates that cantatas always used voices. In Bach's day, these were multi-movement works, accompanied by an orchestra. Almost all of Bach's cantatas use a choir. Many were written for specific feast days in the Lutheran Church calendar. canticle: derives from the Latin for song. Originally referred to musical settings of biblical texts, but later expanded to musical settings of sacred texts more generally. The most famous canticle text is undoubtedly the Canticle of Mary, also known as the Magnificat. Other famous canticle texts are the Canticle of Simeon (Nunc dimitiis) and Canticle of Zachary (Benedictus). Cantus firmus: literally, fixed song. A cantus firmus (sometimes marked with “c.f.” in the score) is normally a pre-existing melody which forms the basis for a new work. This technique is common in the Renaissance, when composers would base an entire Mass on an existing melody (the cantus firmus), thus presenting new music for a congregation to follow and hear [since in the Renaissance, the Catholic congregations would not sing the Mass] based on a familiar melody. Among the most famous examples is the Missa L’Homme Armé by Machaut, in which the cantus firmus is a famous war song. In a sense, every time Bach weaves a chorale melody into a cantata, he is using a cantus firmus. chorale [kore-AL]: the main Lutheran contribution to church music; these were simple pieces sung in German, intended for the congregation (not a professional choir) to sing. As a result, the melody is simple, step-wise, limited in range, and uses simple rhythms. Chorales were often accompanied by the organ, or sung in parts (soprano, alto, tenor, bass), but always with a clear, simple melody in the soprano. chorale cantata: a cantata which uses chorale melodies in some of the movements. The Christmas Oratorio actually is composed of six chorale cantatas. chorale fantasy: a movement which uses a chorale tune in one part, often in long, easy-to-follow notes, while the other parts of the choir and/or orchestra sing and play more complicated, active parts around the tune. One example of this type of piece is the first movement of Bach's Cantata No. 140.
Circle of fifth: a device used by students to remember key signatures and remember relationships between keys. The circle of fifths is shown at right. Major keys are shown around the outside of the circle. Minor keys are shown on the inside of the circle. The number of sharps or flats in each key are shown at each space, with C major and a minor (no sharps or flats) always at the top. Enharmonic keys are shown at the bottom of the circle. cluster: a good of pitches, sounded simultaneously, which are arranged in seconds, rather than thirds or fourths (for example, D, E, and F#) coda: literally, in Italian, tail. A coda is most common in Classical and Romantic period music after the composer has finished with the expected form of the music. A coda’s function is generally to provide a strong conclusion to the work, giving the piece a grander sense of finality. It can, however, introduce new musical material, as we sometimes see in Beethoven’s works, or in the 2nd movement of Brahms’s Ein deutsches Requiem. common tone modulation: a type of modulation found most often in 19th-century music, where a key change occurs by using a single pitch common to both the key we are leaving and the key to which we are going. For example, between C major (C D E F G A B C) and A major (A B C# D E F# G#A), there are several pitches in common (A B D and E), but only E is the common pitch between the tonic chords of C major (C E G) and A major (A C# E). To perform a common tone modulation between these two keys, finish a section of music in C major, then choose one of these common tones to sound by itself (probably E), then fill in the rest of the new tonic chord. This type of modulation can be seen in Brahms’s Ein deutsches Requiem, movement 2. compound meter: any metrical designation in which the individual beats are normally subdivided into groups of three, rather than two (simple meter). For example, 6/8 subdivides into two groups of 3 eighth notes. Concertino: Literally, the little concerto. This refers to the group of soloists in a Baroque concerto or concerto grosso. Even in a solo concerto, there is still a "group" in the concertino, because of the presence of the continuo. concerto grosso: literally, large concerto, the concerto grosso features a group of soloists (called the "concertino") rather than a single soloist. The rest of the orchestra (called "tutti" or "ripieno") accompanies and plays in between phrases featuring the soloists. Bach's Brandenburg Concertos No. 1, 2, and 4 are concerti grossi. conjunct: mostly stepwise motion continuo: short for basso continuo Corelli clash: A series of 2-3 suspensions. Named after the composer Archangelo Corelli, in whose music such strings of suspensions are found. Corelli was not the only composer who used these passages; in fact, they are common in Italian Baroque music around 1700 and shortly thereafter, including works by Corelli and Vivaldi, and Bach, who was influenced by the Italian instrumental composers. corno da caccia [KORN-oh dah KAH-cha]: hunting horn. countermelody: a secondary tune, almost equal in importance to the main melody sung or played elsewhere, and occurring simultaneously. countersubject: a secondary theme in a fugue, which occurs simultaneous with statements of the subject, though in a different voice, in a fugue. A countersubject cannot appear during the first statement of the subject, which occurs in a single part without any accompaniment. courante: a French courtly dance; usually in 3/2 meter, and often (though not necessarily) with a pick up. The beat tends to move slowly, though the subdivisions can be flowing and quick. court musician: a person employed in the court (home) of a local political leader or member of the aristocracy; their homes were called "courts" da
capo aria: a 3-part aria, in ABA form. The first A section is
contained within the tonic key, and ends with a clear cadence. The
B section is contrasting in character and sometimes also in key.
A complete repeat of A follows. It was common practice for the vocal
soloist to improvise ornamentation on the repetition of A. Common
from the second half of the 17th century through about 1770, especially
in the works of Alessandro Scarlatti, Handel, Porpora, Vinci, and,
yes, Bach. dal segno aria: similar to a da capo aria, except that instead of returning to the opening, the music begins at a point in the music designated by the sign at right. deceptive cadence: a cadence with an unexpected “resolution,” most often a dominant moving to VI (submediant), and therefore creative a deceptive effect; in this case, because there is no true point of repose, no true resolution, a subsequent phrase normally concludes V-I (or V-i) to provide true closure. diatonic: in a key, using notes belonging mostly to a single key dynamics: in music, volume (how loud or soft) disjunct: mostly leaping/skipping motion dissonance: a combination of pitches which is not consonant or displeasing. Distant key: two keys are considered distant from each other if they are more than two steps away on the circle of fifths. Doctrine of Affections: An important theory governing musical composition during the Baroque which stated that music had an emotional effect on people, and that a single movement or piece of music should attempt to reflect or create in the listener's mind one and only one emotion. Although there was general agreement amongst theorists and musicians throughout Europe on the principle behind the Doctrine of Affections, there was a great deal of variety in its application and in the details. Some theorists went so far as to identify the associations between individual intervals and specific emotions; other focused on keys and modes. dominant: refers to the fifth pitch in the major or minor scale as well as to the major chord built on that pitch (for example, in C major, the dominant pitch is G and the dominant chord is G-B-D). Dorian mode: Uses the pitches D, E, F, G, A, B, C, D (or, the same intervals, transposed: whole step, half step, whole step, whole, whole, half, whole). Has a minor key sound, though lacks the raised leading tone (raised seventh scale degree) to place the sound into minor. Perhaps the most commonly used mode in the era prior to the development of the major/minor tonal system. enharmonic: a term which refers to two pitches which are written differently but sound the same, such as F-sharp and G-flat. Can also be used to refer to keys which sound the same but are written differently, such as F-sharp major and G-flat major. Evangelist: Matthew, Mark, Luke, or John; the authors of the gospels exposition: the opening section of a fugue, in which each voice part or instrumental part states the fugue subject once. After all voices have stated the subject one time, the exposition is over. fermata: a hold or pause. Sometimes called a "bird's eye" or a "hold," a fermata looks like a half circle with a dot in the middle. figured bass: a bass part provided with numbers (figures) which indicate harmonies. Figured bass lines always appear in a part marked "continuo" or "basso continuo." The melodic bass instrument (bassoon, cello) play the pitches indicated by the composer, while the harmonic instrument (lute, organ, harpsichord) play the pitches indicated plus the chord structures indicated by the numbers. No numbers indicate a root position triad. A 7 alone indicates a root position seventh chord. 6 indicates a first inversion triad, while 6 and 5 together (one on top of the other) indicates a first inversion seventh chord. There are many other such combinations to indicate both chords, accidentals, and non-chord tones in the harmonic structure. French overture: a two-part piece, the opening movement of a larger work such as an oratorio, suite, or opera. Called "French" because it developed primarily in the late-17th century works of Jean-Baptiste Lully and his successors. The opening movement is majestic, slow in tempo, and marked by dotted rhythms. Following this is a faster movement, usually imitative in texture. Often, the opening slow section returns briefly to close out the entire movement. fugue: a polyphonic piece in which a single theme is presented in different parts, often in different keys and ranges. A fugue begins with an exposition, in which the theme (called the "subject" in a fugue) is played or sung by each part once. Following this, the subject appears in some sections of music, and does not appear at all in others. Bach was considered a master of the fugue. © 2004 Carol Traupman-Carr |
appoggiatura
