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Glossary a cappella: literally, "to the chapel," a cappella means performed without instrumental accompaniment. accompanied recitative: a recitative in which the orchestra (or selected members of the instrumental ensemble) play an active role, rather than simply sustaining chords to provide a harmonic foundation for the singer. Accompanied recitatives are fairly common in the Viennese Classical Era (Mozart), but a few examples do appear in Bach's cantatas. allemande: a dance in moderate tempo, always in duple meter. Bach frequently uses the allemande in his keyboard suites; in this situation, they are usually composed in 4/4 time and make heavy use of running figures. antiphonal: refers to singing in alternating choruses: chorus 1, chorus 2, chorus 1, chorus 2, etc.
aria: usually, a solo vocal work, often elaborate and with instrumental accompaniment. An important component of opera, oratorio, and cantata. Another type of aria in the Baroque was a choral or vocal work, strophic in nature, homophonic in texture, composed on a metrical text (regular accent pattern, same number of syllables per line). The "aria'' from "Komm, Jesu, komm'' is one such aria, scored for chorus. arioso [are-ee-OH-so]: a texture which is partly lyrical and expressive and partly recitative or speech-like autograph: a hand-written score or part written by the composer himself basso continuo: perhaps the most important characteristic of Baroque music. Often shortened to continuo, the basso continuo was composed of a bass-register instrument that could play melodic lines (such as the bassoon or cello), and an instrument capable of playing chords (the organ in church music, the harpsichord or sometimes the lute in secular music). Both the melodic bass (pronounced like "base") instrument and the keyboard instrument would read the same part. The cello or bassoon would play a single bass line, but the keyboard player would play the bass line in the left hand and improvise chords in the right. A system of numbers would indicate to the keyboard player what chords were expected. beat: a regular metrical subdivision of a measure. Berlin Singakademie: founded in 1791 by Carl Fasch, this musical organization was dedicated to the preservation and performance of 18th-century sacred choral music, especially that of Bach; the orchestra regularly rehearsed instrumental music of that period as well. Felix and Fanny Mendelssohn were introduced by Bach's works by attending rehearsals of the Singakademie orchestra and later by singing with in the choir. binary form: a two-part form, in which the first half moves from the tonic key to the dominant (in a major key) or to the relative minor (in the minor mode); and the second half returns at some point to the tonic to close the work. Both halves are repeated, and marked with repeat signs. The two halves need not be balanced, and generally the second "half" is longer because of the wandering back to the tonic. Binary forms, especially "simple binary forms," were common in Bach's suites. BWV: an abbreviation for Bach Werke Verzeichniss, which is a catalogue of Bach's works. The catalogue is organized by genre, not in the order the pieces were composed. canon: the strictest form of imitation; an extended melody is imitated strictly in one or more other parts. Usually the imitation occurs at a relatively close distance(such as a measure apart, as in the Brahms motet discussed above, between the tenors and bass II (also sopranos and alto II); though in the Brahms motet discussed above, there is also a canon between the men's and women's parts, nine measures apart. The imitation must include the same intervals (major thirds must remain, for example, and not be changed to minor thirds, as is common in a fugue), but the actual pitches may vary. That is to say, the original melody might begin on B, but the imitation begins on C; moving from one pitch to the next, however, all original intervals are precisely maintained. cadenza: literally, cadence; in common usage, however, the term means an improvised or written-out solo passage, usually highly ornamental. Almost always occurs during an interrupted cadence; that is, on the second or third chord prior to a cadence. cantata [kahn-TAH-tah]: comes from the Italian word "cantare," meaning "to sing." This indicates that cantatas always used voices. In Bach's day, these were multi-movement works, accompanied by an orchestra. Almost all of Bach's cantatas use a choir. Many were written for specific feast days in the Lutheran Church calendar. chorale [kore-AL]: the main Lutheran contribution to church music; these were simple pieces sung in German, intended for the congregation (not a professional choir) to sing. As a result, the melody is simple, step-wise, limited in range, and uses simple rhythms. Chorales were often accompanied by the organ, or sung in parts (soprano, alto, tenor, bass), but always with a clear, simple melody in the soprano. chorale cantata: a cantata which uses chorale melodies in some of the movements. The Christmas Oratorio actually is composed of six chorale cantatas. chorale fantasy: a movement which uses a chorale tune in one part, often in long, easy-to-follow notes, while the other parts of the choir and/or orchestra sing and play more complicated, active parts around the tune. One example of this type of piece is the first movement of Bach's Cantata No. 140. concerto grosso: literally, large concerto, the concerto grosso features a group of soloists (called the "concertino") rather than a single soloist. The rest of the orchestra (called "tutti" or "ripieno") accompanies and plays in between phrases featuring the soloists. Bach's Brandenburg Concertos No. 1, 2, and 4 are concerti grossi. conjunct: mostly stepwise motion continuo: short for basso continuo corno da caccia [KORN-oh dah KAH-cha]: hunting horn. countermelody: a secondary tune, almost equal in importance to the main melody sung or played elsewhere, and occurring simultaneously. countersubject: a secondary theme in a fugue, which occurs simultaneous with statements of the subject, though in a different voice, in a fugue. A countersubject cannot appear during the first statement of the subject, which occurs in a single part without any accompaniment. court musician: a person employed in the court (home) of a local political leader or member of the aristocracy; their homes were called "courts" da
capo aria: a 3-part aria, in ABA form. The first A section is
contained within the tonic key, and ends with a clear cadence. The
B section is contrasting in character and sometimes also in key.
A complete repeat of A follows. It was common practice for the vocal
soloist to improvise ornamentation on the repetition of A. Common
from the second half of the 17th century through about 1770, especially
in the works of Alessandro Scarlatti, Handel, Porpora, Vinci, and,
yes, Bach. dal segno aria: similar to a da capo aria, except that instead of returning to the opening, the music begins at a point in the music designated by the sign at right. diatonic: in a key, using notes belonging mostly to a single key dynamics: in music, volume (how loud or soft) disjunct: mostly leaping/skipping motion dissonance: a combination of pitches which is not consonant or displeasing. Doctrine of Affections: An important theory governing musical composition during the Baroque which stated that music had an emotional effect on people, and that a single movement or piece of music should attempt to reflect or create in the listener's mind one and only one emotion. Although there was general agreement amongst theorists and musicians throughout Europe on the principle behind the Doctrine of Affections, there was a great deal of variety in its application and in the details. Some theorists went so far as to identify the associations between individual intervals and specific emotions; other focused on keys and modes. Evangelist: Matthew, Mark, Luke, or John; the authors of the gospels exposition: the opening section of a fugue, in which each voice part or instrumental part states the fugue subject once. After all voices have stated the subject one time, the exposition is over. fermata: a hold or pause. Sometimes called a "bird's eye" or a "hold," a fermata looks like a half circle with a dot in the middle. figured bass: a bass part provided with numbers (figures) which indicate harmonies. Figured bass lines always appear in a part marked "continuo" or "basso continuo." The melodic bass instrument (bassoon, cello) play the pitches indicated by the composer, while the harmonic instrument (lute, organ, harpsichord) play the pitches indicated plus the chord structures indicated by the numbers. No numbers indicate a root position triad. A 7 alone indicates a root position seventh chord. 6 indicates a first inversion triad, while 6 and 5 together (one on top of the other) indicates a first inversion seventh chord. There are many other such combinations to indicate both chords, accidentals, and non-chord tones in the harmonic structure. French overture: a two-part piece, the opening movement of a larger work such as an oratorio, suite, or opera. Called "French" because it developed primarily in the late-17th century works of Jean-Baptiste Lully and his successors. The opening movement is majestic, slow in tempo, and marked by dotted rhythms. Following this is a faster movement, usually imitative in texture. Often, the opening slow section returns briefly to close out the entire movement. fugue: a polyphonic piece in which a single theme is presented in different parts, often in different keys and ranges. A fugue begins with an exposition, in which the theme (called the "subject" in a fugue) is played or sung by each part once. Following this, the subject appears in some sections of music, and does not appear at all in others. Bach was considered a master of the fugue. galant: a style of music immediately following the Baroque period; found mostly in works from 1740-1770; the style is marked by an overall light, elegant character; short, miniature pieces; clear phrasing; simple harmonies; and an overall homophonic style. The galant style was intended to be simpler, less complex, less emotional than the Baroque which preceded it. genre [ZHAWN-rah]: a type of piece ground bass: a work based on a repeating bass line, usually 8 measures in length. The bass line repeats without change. The ground bass also refers to the bass line itself. Synonyms: chaconne, passacaglia. harmonic rhythm: the speed at which the chords change. In the Baroque era, the harmonic rhythm was generally slow, with one or two chords per measure. harmonization: adding chords to a melody. The chords could be played by single instrument (such as the harpsichord or organ), by a group of instruments (as in an orchestra), or sung by a choir (where the melody would normally be in the soprano). homophonic: a texture best described as melody with accompaniment, as in a hymn. The accompaniment might be instrumental or vocal, but there is one clear melody, usually in the soprano. idiomatic: well suited for a particular voice or instrument. Much music written in the early Baroque period or earlier than that was written for any treble instrument, or any bass instrument. Beginning in the Baroque, composers wrote for a specifically-named instrument. Violin parts, therefore, are written differently than flute parts, even though both are treble instruments. imitation: when parts echo each other, usually with overlapping statements. The echoes could be exactly the same, or just similar. interval: the distance between two pitches librettist: the person who writes the libretto (the text) for an opera, oratorio, or cantata. libretto: literally, it means "little book." The entire text for an opera, oratorio, or cantata. major: uses pitches from a scale in which the third note is higher than minor, producing a brighter sound. The interval between pitches, from bottom to top, in a major scale is as follows: whole step, whole step, half step, whole step, whole step, whole step, half step. Mass: the most important liturgy in the Roman Catholic church; celebrated every day, and sometimes more than once a day, it commemorates the Last Supper (Jesus Christ's last meal with his disciples before his crucifixion). The Mass is composed of numerous prayers, musical items, responses, Biblical readings, and other texts. See also Ordinary and Proper. melisma: more than one note on a syllable. A good example of this occurs in the "pleni sunt coeli" section of the Sanctus in Bach's B Minor Mass. melody: the main theme in a piece of music meter: a pattern of fixed beats (subdivisions of musical time) for an entire piece of music or section of music. Meter is indicated by a time signature, which resembles a fraction. Meter usually groups beats in twos, threes, or fours. Individual beats can be subdivided in twos (called "simple meter") or threes ("called compound meter). minor: uses pitches from a scale in which the third note is lowered, compared to major. Sometimes the sixth and seventh notes are lowered as well, though they often are not. Pieces written in minor are often more somber or sad in mood modal mixture: a combination of major and minor in a passage which is otherwise clearly in a major key or clearly in a minor key; the effect is to obscure the key or mode temporarily. monophonic: a texture in which all parts and/or instruments do exactly the same thing simultaneously; that is, there is only one melody without any kind of accompaniment.
To perform this, insert descending neighboring tones where the squiggles appear. Mordents without the vertical line should be performed with an ascending neighboring tone. motet: a polyphonic vocal composition, usually written in Latin, unaccompanied, and using a sacred text. A popular genre of the Renaissance. Bach wrote 6 motets, some of which have optional instrumental accompaniment. Bach's motets are written in German, the vernacular. Motet Passion: a particular genre of musical Passions, in which the entire text is sung by an a cappella chorus. Essentially, a series of motets. Because there are no soloists, the individual characters of the story cannot be developed or distinguished through the music. movement: any complete and independent division of a larger work. Individual movements are separated by a brief pause before and after. Usually, the audience should not applaud during these breaks between movements. A succession of movements comprises a larger work, such as a concerto, a symphony, a cantata, or an oratorio. Here, in a D major chord, the C-sharp is a non-chord tone. It is placed between two Ds, which do fit the chord; the C-sharp is approached and left by step. Neighboring tones may be ascending or descending (as in the example above). obbligato: obligatory; that is, you must play this part. Often misunderstood by students to mean "optional." ostinato: a repeating pattern. May be melodic (pitches repeated), rhythmic (rhythms repeated) or a combination. A ground bass is an example of an ostinato, where both pitch and rhythm are repeated. Oboe d'amore: this is an older version of the modern oboe. It has a slightly lower range than the modern oboe, and also a slightly sweeter sound. Oboe da caccia: this is also a type of oboe. It was curved in the shape of a hunting horn, which it why it is called "da caccia." It had a lower range than the modern oboe. oratorio: a long, dramatic, sacred work which tells a story using soloists, a chorus, and orchestra. Unlike an opera, an oratorio is rarely acted out. Ordinary: those parts of the Catholic Mass whose texts remain the same every day. There are five Ordinaries which are normally set to music by composers: Kyrie (Lord have mercy), Gloria (Glory to God in the highest), Credo (We believe in one God), Sanctus (Holy, holy, holy Lord), and Agnus Dei (Lamb of God). organ: a keyboard instrument using pipes to produce the sound. Although the manuals (keyboards) are played like the modern piano, an additional keyboard of pedals is played by the feet, and a stream of wind blows through the pipes as the instrument is played, producing the sound. The organ was used most often in church (sacred) music. organist: one who plays the organ partial signature: a key signature in which at least one accidental is omitted. This was common in the Renaissance when the "missing'' accidental would not be in use in all of the vocal parts. In Bach's day, partial signatures still occurred, though almost always in minor-key flat key signatures, such as in his early motet, "Ich lasse dich nicht'' (BWV 159a). passion: a music composition which retells the story of Christ's passion, leading from the Last Supper through his crucifixion and death on the cross. pedal tone: Sometimes called "pedal point.'' A long, held note, usually in the bass (where the pedals in the organ sound), which continues to hold even as the chords above it change. As a result, the pedal tone sometimes fits the chord, sometimes not, creating tension and dissonance. Sometimes, even with the dissonance, the pedal tone can be used to "anchor'' a given passage in a key, thus providing stability despite the alternating consonance and dissonance. periodic phrasing: organization of phrases of a musical work into pairs of an equal number of measures (usually 4 + 4, sometimes 8 + 8), in an antecedent-consequent arrangement. In such an arrangement, the first phrase is open-ended and requires the second phrase (often based on a similar theme or idea) to achieve closure. Permutation fugue: a fugue in which material after the original subject also becomes the object of imitation. phrase: a complete musical thought. Like a phrase in grammar, a musical phrase can be dependent, requiring additional phrases to create a more complete sound, or independent and sound sufficient on its own. Picardy third: the major third above the tonic pitch on the final chord Ana piece otherwise written in the minor mode; that is, a minor key piece ends with the major version of the tonic (a C minor piece ends with a C minor chord). The term from a French word meaning sharp or pointed. pitch: the perceived highness or lowness of sound. Pitch can be very specific (A or middle C, for example), or relative (high, low, lower, for example). polyphonic: a texture in which all parts are equal and independent prelude: a short work which comes before a larger work. Used to establish the key of the work and sometimes the mood. Proper: those parts of the Catholic Mass whose texts change daily. Protestant Reformation: a movement in which a large number of Christians broke from the Catholic church and founded their own denominations. While they remained Christians, they tried to right what they saw as wrong with the Catholic Church. In the case of Martin Luther, he found 95 elements which needed fixing or correcting in the Roman Catholic Church and posted those on a cathedral door. The Lutheran movement was the most famous and probably the largest of the Reformation Churches to form, although it was not the first. (Jan Hus, founder of the Unitas Fratrum, or Moravian Church, actually broke from the Roman Catholic Church almost 100 years before Luther, but he was killed and his followers persecuted, so they remained a secret sect until the larger Reformation came to pass.) Real answer: in a fugue, a subsequent statement of the subject (that is, any statement but the first) in which all intervals remain exactly the same as in the original statement, although the starting pitch may differ. For example, a fugue subject might begin on C, then leap up a perfect fifth, then down a major third. In a real answer, the statement of the subject might begin on G, then leap up a perfect fifth, then down a major third. recitative [reh-sih-tah-TEEV]: speech-like singing. The term can be used to describe a movement, a texture, or a section within a piece. ripieno: equivalent to "tutti," or everyone. Used primarily in the concerto gross form to indicate the full ensemble, as opposed to the solo group (concertino). ritornello: a recurring orchestral melody. Common especially in the concertos of Vivaldi. rondeau: The term "rondeau'' goes back to the Middle Ages, where it was an important poetic and musical form in France. More relevant to Bach and later composers, the rondeau was an instrumental form from the 17th century, which alternated a refrain (usually 8 or 16 measures in length, and sometimes repeated itself), with "couplets,'' as they were called(basically, different "verses''. Each couplet was usually in a different, though closely-related, key to the refrain. The form was common in 17th-century French harpsichord music. rondo: a popular form of the Classical era (c.1780-1815). Although it is primarily an instrumental form, rondos were adapted at time to vocal music (a good example is Cherubini's aria "Non so piß cosa son, cosa faccio'' from Le nozze di Figaro). Like its predecessor, the rondeau, the rondo was based on the principals of repetition and contrast: an initial theme begins a work, returns periodically, and usually closes the movement; interspersed are new, contrasting themes (usually 2). The form is usually diagrammed with letters representing each theme as such: ABACA (with A representing the original, rondo theme; B, C, and all other letters represent differing material). sarabande: A dance of Spanish origin, used by Bach in many of his French, English, and orchestral suites. The sarabande is a slow dance in triple meter, with accents on the second and/or third beat. It was quite dignified in character, and usually lacked upbeats. scale: a pre-determined arrangement of a succession of pitches, usually eight, where the first and last have the same pitch name. Most commonly used are major and minor scales, especially in Bach's day. secular: music not written for religious purposes
simple binary form: a binary form in which there is no actual return of the theme which opened the movement, though the melody may be similar. In contrast, a "rounded binary" form brings back the original them, albeit shortened, with the return of the tonic in the second section. soprano: the highest-sounding female voice; or, the highest register in an instrumental work. Flutes, violins, and oboes are instruments which typical play in the soprano range. stile antico: the term used during the Baroque for the old style of writing; that is, a cappella church music of the Renaissance, such as by Palestrina and his generation. strophic: In poetry or hymns, any text which is organized in stanzas of equal length. Strophic musical settings refer to a composition which employs the same music for different text (usually, strophic poetry). subject: the theme in a fugue.
taille: an older term for middle voice, usually performed by the viola. Bach may have intended this part to be performed by a tenor oboe, tuned like the oboe DA caccia or English horn. tempo: the speed of a piece of music. texture: the character of a composition or passage, in view of the combination of all parts; the musical fabric. Textures may be thick or thin, busy or simple, homophonic, polyphonic, or monophonic. triad: a chord built of three pitches which can fit on consecutive lines or consecutive spaces on a staff. trio sonata: though the term implies three (trio), a trio sonata normally employs 4 performers--two melodic parts, and two instruments (a melodic one and a chordal one) on the continuo part. There are, however, three separate parts in the score. triplet: a division of the beat into 3 equal parts, rather than 2. tutti: everyone or all. Synonymous with ripieno in a concerto or concerto gross setting. unison: simultaneous performance of the same pitch; also, the interval containing no semitones or whole tones. Sometimes the term "rhythmic unison" is employed to distinguish music in which all parts are rhythmically the same, despite any pitch differences which may exist. vernacular: the language of the people, rather than Latin, the official language of the Catholic Church. For example, the vernacular in France is French; the vernacular in Wales is Welsh. Violone: the largest of the viol family. By the end of the Baroque era, the viol family almost entirely disappears from orchestras, being replaced by the preferred violin family. The exception is what we today know as the string bass or double bass, which is in fact derived from the viol family. In the Renaissance, viols were the preferred string instruments. The strings were tuned in fourths, rather than fifths as the modern violin. Viols were basically categorized by range: treble, tenor, and bass. Bach is one of the last composers to employ the viol in his ensembles, though even in his works the appearances of the viols are limited. Generally speaking, the viol continues in France as part of court chamber music longer than elsewhere in Europe. virtuoso: someone who displays a high level of proficiency in playing or singing. walking bass line: sometimes called running bass line. A common characteristic of high Baroque music, a walking bass line is an active, moving bassline with frequently changing pitches. See section "What is Baroque?" for an example. The Well-Tempered Clavier: written in two volumes, each contains a prelude and a fugue in every major and minor key. Used as a teaching tool. word painting: when the music reflects or imitates the words. For example, on "heaven" the music rises. © 2002 Carol Traupman-Carr |
appoggiatura
neighboring
tone
sequence:
a melodic pattern, which appears, usually in a single voice, beginning
on different pitches. Sequences are common in "filler"
passages between important melodic statements. An example of a sequence
is shown at right.
suspension:
a non-chord tone in which a tone which had been a member of
a chord is sustained (suspended) as the harmony changes, at which
point it creates a dissonance. A suspension must resolve downward
to a member of the chord. An example of a suspension is shown in
the score at left.
syncopation:
a rhythmic device whereby an accent occurs in some place other than
the strong beat (or strong portion of the beat), or where the strong
beat (or strong portion of the beat) is de-emphasized through the
use of suspension across the strong beat (or strong portion of the
beat). An example of a suspension is shown in the score at right.